How To:

Adjutant General's Office of the War Department

"The Fundamentals of Air Fighting" was a restricted pamphlet issued by the Adjutant General's Office of the War Department in 1942 to fighter and bomber pilots in World War II. I've taken the pamphlet and have edited out the sections not relating to the world of "Air Warrior". Perhaps not surprisingly, a bulk of the manuscript still remains applicable to our combat arena. I can't take full credit for finding this piece of art - I swiped it from the homepage of the 33rd and re-edited to make it more applicable for "Air Warrior". -- Troy "Pancake" Whigham

Forward: The information contained in the following pages has been derived from official and accurate reports of actual air combats and operations. Much of what is repeated here is as old as air fighting itself. The information portrayed is disseminated not as inflexible rules or directives, but rather imparts something of what has been learned of air operations thus far and to encourage initiative and study of the subjects covered by all flying personnel. The air fighter must be constantly awake to all developments, be ever alert to use his best talents to meet the ever fast moving panorama of warfare. To anticipate future developments one must have some knowledge of past and present methods.

I. Gunnery Principles in Air Combat:

The purpose of the fighter pilot, and flexible gunners, is to destroy the enemy quickly with the minimum amount of ammunition. This can best be accomplished by developing superior firepower and firing at decisive range, which can depend on: accuracy of gun sighting, number and type of guns and amount of ammunition available, correct estimation or range, and concentration of fire power.

Concentration of fire power may be considered in two parts, viz: concentration of fire in time and space depending upon the number of guns that can be brought to bear either from a single aircraft or from a formation, and bullet density built up during fire, depending on time and range. The area of space covered by the fire from a single gun is termed the "bullet group" for that gun. The primary consideration is to obtain a bullet density which is likely to destroy the expected target. The total "lethal area" of a target is the sum of the various small vulnerable or vital areas in the target in which it is probable that one bullet would result in disabling or destroying one target aircraft. Pancake's note: In "Air Warrior" the target size is determined by a "hit bubble" drawn from wingtip to wingtip, thus it is easier to hit a P-38 than it is a Bf-109 due to the size disparity of the aircraft width. Your concentration of fire is calculated by the software by determining how many of your bullet "hits" are credited and how many are thrown out depending on the credit given for the cannon of your aircraft, if any. Bullet density, and the size of the bullet group, are directly proportional to range, i.e., the diameter of the group at 400 yards is four times that at 100 yards. It is imperative, in air combat, that a lethal density be built up quickly because the opportunities for accurate shooting are short. The quicker the lethal density is built up the less likely you are yourself to be shot down. Increased lethal density can be built up by higher rate of fire, increased number of guns, mutual support between guns of two or more aircraft, reduction of range, and increased caliber of guns.

II. Air Fighting Principles

A fundamental of all air fighting tactics is simplicity and flexibility. Tactics must be simple because of the time factor. The speed of modern aircraft does not admit of the development of elaborate formations and attacks. Other factors which demand simplicity are difficulty of control, limited vision, difficulties of intercommunication, and fleeting opportunity for decisive air combat.

Another fundamental affecting fighting tactics is morale and leadership. A high morale is essential. It is dependent upon physical fitness, environment, a contented frame of mind, and good leadership. The leader must possess initiative and skill to judge when and from which direction maximum fire should be brought to bear. He must inspire confidence in air crews and know their ability and limitations. The good leader will aim to achieve a decisive success with the whole force under his command rather than try to gain a personal victory. Surprise is the most important factor in air fighting and a leader should maneuver for position to achieve surprise before attacking, if possible.

When enemy aircraft are sighted in one direction, vigilance in the other directions must not be relaxed. More often than not other supporting aircraft will be in the vicinity and to launch blithely into the attack on the first enemy seen without a quick search for other enemy planes is a sure way to be shot out of the sky and never know what hit you.

III. Some Do's and Don'ts

Before taking off or landing, search the sky for enemy aircraft. It is at these moments your aircraft is most vulnerable. If you hear gunfire (in the instance of "Air Warrior" its the flak battery), or see bullets hitting close to you or observe tracers going past immediately take evasive action - then look around. Don't try to look before starting to turn. It might be too late. Develop a rubber neck. Keep the sky under constant surveillance. Watch your tail. Conserve ammunition. Never fly or dive straight when being attacked by aircraft or anti-aircraft fire. Fighters should endeavor not to close in on the enemy at too high a speed during the final stages of the approach or the burst of fire will be too short to be effective, or you may overshoot altogether. Don't go into the V of enemy bombers. Attack them from the flank, and from both flanks simultaneously, where possible. When you are going into the attack, don't give the enemy a chance at a deflection shot at you. As far as you can, keep your nose on the enemy and approach his blind spots as much as possible. In attacking enemy bombers don't fire a long burst if enemy fighters are about; two seconds is long enough. Then, break away quickly and look about to be sure no enemy fighter is after you. If all clear you can take another crack at the bombers if necessary. Don't break into a climbing turn. This gives an easy shot to the enemy rear gunner. Don't leave your formation if you can help it unless ordered to do so. Don't ever fly straight especially if you are alone. Keep that rubber neck turning continuously and keep a lookout behind. Don't waste ammunition by firing at long ranges.

IV. Formation Principles

Size:

A large formation is more vulnerable to anti-aircraft fire than a number of small formations. The larger the formation the less maneuverable it becomes. However, it is more likely to subject attacking aircraft to a superior concentration of fire. With a large formation there will be a tendency for a number of gunners to fire on a few enemy aircraft and to ignore others, and to waste ammunition. There is therefore a limit to the size of a formation to obtain economical fire concentration. Aircraft which have blind spots or sectors of reduced fire power, need larger formation than those which have all around arcs of fire. Small formations are less easily seen than the large ones.

Shape:

Every pilot must be able to easily see the aircraft on which he is forming. All aircraft in the formation must keep station on the leader, and as few as possible in sequence. Otherwise accumulated errors build up and the rearmost pilots have a very difficult task in maintaining proper position. While being attacked, make it impossible to draw a straight line from the enemy aircraft line of approach through two or more aircraft in the formation. Otherwise the attacker may successfully enfilade the formation. The length of the formation should be equal in all directions, where possible. All aircraft in the formation, with possible exception of the leader to be equidistant from the enemy aircraft. Thus, in defensive bomber formations every aircraft should be spread perpendicular to the enemy's line of approach. Aircraft in formation should be sufficiently far apart to avoid one plane being hit by shots aimed at the other. At the same time they should be sufficiently close to provide maximum mutual support. The ideal defensive formation will differ with every method and direction of attack. Each formation must, therefore, possess sufficient flexibility to allow a quick alteration to some other formation. When encountering anti-aircraft fire all section should be far enough apart to avoid more than one aircraft being brought down by a single flak burst.

V. Evasion Principles

Always turn toward a fighter. Thus you shorten his approach, and therefore make him turn more rapidly. Maybe he won't be able, aerodynamically, to turn fast enough and he may be forced to break away. DO NOT turn away from the direction of attack. A straight dive will give enemy aircraft a "sitting shot". You actually appear as a stationary target in such a dive either at a target plane or away from the plane. Never change from one turn to a reverse turn. Wait for a brief interval between attacks. Take a quick look about before launching successive attacks. When hedge hopping or flying low over the sea, fly an erratic course.

To evade enemy fighters, fast bombers may be sent in advance of the striking force to draw off enemy fighters. Also, planes may be routed on dog-leg courses toward other important objectives with a view of deceiving the enemy as to the final target